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runtime: make the GC bitmap a byte array

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Half the code in the garbage collector accesses the bitmap
as an array of bytes instead of as an array of uintptrs.
This is tricky to do correctly in a portable fashion,
it breaks on big-endian systems.
Make the bitmap a byte array.
Simplifies markallocated, scanblock and span sweep along the way,
as we don't need to recalculate bitmap position for each word.

LGTM=khr
R=golang-codereviews, khr
CC=golang-codereviews, rlh, rsc
https://golang.org/cl/125250043
This commit is contained in:
Dmitriy Vyukov 2014-08-19 17:38:00 +04:00
parent fb44fb6cb7
commit ff3fa1b32d
8 changed files with 168 additions and 125 deletions
Download patch file Download diff file Expand all files Collapse all files

8
src/pkg/runtime/asm_386.s
View file

@ -619,6 +619,14 @@ TEXT runtime·atomicstore64(SB), NOSPLIT, $0-12
XADDL AX, (SP)
RET
// void runtime·atomicor8(byte volatile*, byte);
TEXT runtime·atomicor8(SB), NOSPLIT, $0-8
MOVL ptr+0(FP), AX
MOVB val+4(FP), BX
LOCK
ORB BX, (AX)
RET
// void jmpdefer(fn, sp);
// called from deferreturn.
// 1. pop the caller

8
src/pkg/runtime/asm_amd64.s
View file

@ -702,6 +702,14 @@ TEXT runtime·atomicstore64(SB), NOSPLIT, $0-16
XCHGQ AX, 0(BX)
RET
// void runtime·atomicor8(byte volatile*, byte);
TEXT runtime·atomicor8(SB), NOSPLIT, $0-16
MOVQ ptr+0(FP), AX
MOVB val+8(FP), BX
LOCK
ORB BX, (AX)
RET
// void jmpdefer(fn, sp);
// called from deferreturn.
// 1. pop the caller

16
src/pkg/runtime/atomic_arm.c
View file

@ -167,3 +167,19 @@ runtime·atomicstore64(uint64 volatile *addr, uint64 v)
*addr = v;
runtime·unlock(LOCK(addr));
}
#pragma textflag NOSPLIT
void
runtime·atomicor8(byte volatile *addr, byte v)
{
uint32 *addr32, old, word, shift;
// Align down to 4 bytes and use 32-bit CAS.
addr32 = (uint32*)((uintptr)addr & ~3);
word = ((uint32)v) << (((uintptr)addr & 3) * 8);
for(;;) {
old = *addr32;
if(runtime·cas(addr32, old, old|word))
break;
}
}

11
src/pkg/runtime/heapdump.c
View file

@ -820,7 +820,8 @@ dumpbvtypes(BitVector *bv, byte *base)
static BitVector
makeheapobjbv(byte *p, uintptr size)
{
uintptr off, shift, *bitp, bits, nptr, i;
uintptr off, nptr, i;
byte shift, *bitp, bits;
bool mw;
// Extend the temp buffer if necessary.
@ -838,13 +839,13 @@ makeheapobjbv(byte *p, uintptr size)
mw = false;
for(i = 0; i < nptr; i++) {
off = (uintptr*)(p + i*PtrSize) - (uintptr*)runtime·mheap.arena_start;
bitp = (uintptr*)runtime·mheap.arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapWord - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapWord) * gcBits;
bits = (*bitp >> (shift + 2)) & 3;
bitp = runtime·mheap.arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapByte - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapByte) * gcBits;
bits = (*bitp >> (shift + 2)) & BitsMask;
if(!mw && bits == BitsDead)
break; // end of heap object
mw = !mw && bits == BitsMultiWord;
tmpbuf[i*BitsPerPointer/8] &= ~(3<<((i*BitsPerPointer)%8));
tmpbuf[i*BitsPerPointer/8] &= ~(BitsMask<<((i*BitsPerPointer)%8));
tmpbuf[i*BitsPerPointer/8] |= bits<<((i*BitsPerPointer)%8);
}
return (BitVector){i*BitsPerPointer, (uint32*)tmpbuf};

22
src/pkg/runtime/malloc.go
View file

@ -22,8 +22,8 @@ const (
pageSize = 1 << pageShift
pageMask = pageSize - 1
wordsPerBitmapWord = ptrSize * 8 / 4
gcBits = 4
wordsPerBitmapByte = 8 / gcBits
bitsPerPointer = 2
bitsMask = 1<<bitsPerPointer - 1
pointersPerByte = 8 / bitsPerPointer
@ -211,8 +211,8 @@ func gomallocgc(size uintptr, typ *_type, flags int) unsafe.Pointer {
{
arena_start := uintptr(unsafe.Pointer(mheap_.arena_start))
off := (uintptr(x) - arena_start) / ptrSize
xbits := (*uintptr)(unsafe.Pointer(arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapWord*ptrSize - ptrSize))
shift := (off % wordsPerBitmapWord) * gcBits
xbits := (*uint8)(unsafe.Pointer(arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapByte - 1))
shift := (off % wordsPerBitmapByte) * gcBits
if debugMalloc && ((*xbits>>shift)&(bitMask|bitPtrMask)) != bitBoundary {
println("runtime: bits =", (*xbits>>shift)&(bitMask|bitPtrMask))
gothrow("bad bits in markallocated")
@ -260,8 +260,7 @@ func gomallocgc(size uintptr, typ *_type, flags int) unsafe.Pointer {
ptrmask = (*uint8)(unsafe.Pointer(&typ.gc[0])) // embed mask
}
if size == 2*ptrSize {
xbitsb := (*uint8)(add(unsafe.Pointer(xbits), shift/8))
*xbitsb = *ptrmask | bitBoundary
*xbits = *ptrmask | bitBoundary
goto marked
}
te = uintptr(typ.size) / ptrSize
@ -283,19 +282,12 @@ func gomallocgc(size uintptr, typ *_type, flags int) unsafe.Pointer {
v &^= uint8(bitPtrMask << 4)
}
off := (uintptr(x) + i - arena_start) / ptrSize
xbits := (*uintptr)(unsafe.Pointer(arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapWord*ptrSize - ptrSize))
shift := (off % wordsPerBitmapWord) * gcBits
xbitsb := (*uint8)(add(unsafe.Pointer(xbits), shift/8))
*xbitsb = v
*xbits = v
xbits = (*byte)(add(unsafe.Pointer(xbits), ^uintptr(0)))
}
if size0%(2*ptrSize) == 0 && size0 < size {
// Mark the word after last object's word as bitsDead.
off := (uintptr(x) + size0 - arena_start) / ptrSize
xbits := (*uintptr)(unsafe.Pointer(arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapWord*ptrSize - ptrSize))
shift := (off % wordsPerBitmapWord) * gcBits
xbitsb := (*uint8)(add(unsafe.Pointer(xbits), shift/8))
*xbitsb = bitsDead << 2
*xbits = bitsDead << 2
}
}
marked:

223
src/pkg/runtime/mgc0.c
View file

@ -212,8 +212,8 @@ static struct {
static void
scanblock(byte *b, uintptr n, byte *ptrmask)
{
byte *obj, *p, *arena_start, *arena_used, **wp, *scanbuf[8], bits8;
uintptr i, nobj, size, idx, *bitp, bits, xbits, shift, x, off, cached, scanbufpos;
byte *obj, *p, *arena_start, *arena_used, **wp, *scanbuf[8], *ptrbitp, *bitp, bits, xbits, shift, cached;
uintptr i, nobj, size, idx, x, off, scanbufpos;
intptr ncached;
Workbuf *wbuf;
String *str;
@ -237,6 +237,10 @@ scanblock(byte *b, uintptr n, byte *ptrmask)
for(i = 0; i < nelem(scanbuf); i++)
scanbuf[i] = nil;
ptrbitp = nil;
cached = 0;
ncached = 0;
// ptrmask can have 3 possible values:
// 1. nil - obtain pointer mask from GC bitmap.
// 2. ScanConservatively - don't use any mask, scan conservatively.
@ -295,8 +299,15 @@ scanblock(byte *b, uintptr n, byte *ptrmask)
}
ptrmask = ScanConservatively;
}
cached = 0;
ncached = 0;
// Find bits of the beginning of the object.
if(ptrmask == nil) {
off = (uintptr*)b - (uintptr*)arena_start;
ptrbitp = arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapByte - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapByte) * gcBits;
cached = *ptrbitp >> shift;
cached &= ~bitBoundary;
ncached = (8 - shift)/gcBits;
}
for(i = 0; i < n; i += PtrSize) {
obj = nil;
// Find bits for this word.
@ -308,16 +319,13 @@ scanblock(byte *b, uintptr n, byte *ptrmask)
// Consult GC bitmap.
if(ncached <= 0) {
// Refill cache.
off = (uintptr*)(b+i) - (uintptr*)arena_start;
bitp = (uintptr*)arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapWord - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapWord) * gcBits;
cached = *bitp >> shift;
ncached = (PtrSize*8 - shift)/gcBits;
cached = *--ptrbitp;
ncached = 2;
}
bits = cached;
cached >>= gcBits;
ncached--;
if(i != 0 && (bits&bitBoundary) != 0)
if((bits&bitBoundary) != 0)
break; // reached beginning of the next object
bits = (bits>>2)&BitsMask;
if(bits == BitsDead)
@ -336,11 +344,9 @@ scanblock(byte *b, uintptr n, byte *ptrmask)
// Find the next pair of bits.
if(ptrmask == nil) {
if(ncached <= 0) {
off = (uintptr*)(b+i+PtrSize) - (uintptr*)arena_start;
bitp = (uintptr*)arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapWord - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapWord) * gcBits;
cached = *bitp >> shift;
ncached = (PtrSize*8 - shift)/gcBits;
// Refill cache.
cached = *--ptrbitp;
ncached = 2;
}
bits = (cached>>2)&BitsMask;
} else
@ -383,8 +389,14 @@ scanblock(byte *b, uintptr n, byte *ptrmask)
if(bits == BitsSlice) {
i += 2*PtrSize;
cached >>= 2*gcBits;
ncached -= 2;
if(ncached == 2)
ncached = 0;
else if(ptrmask == nil) {
// Refill cache and consume one quadruple.
cached = *--ptrbitp;
cached >>= gcBits;
ncached = 1;
}
} else {
i += PtrSize;
cached >>= gcBits;
@ -398,20 +410,12 @@ scanblock(byte *b, uintptr n, byte *ptrmask)
continue;
// Mark the object.
off = (uintptr*)obj - (uintptr*)arena_start;
bitp = (uintptr*)arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapWord - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapWord) * gcBits;
bitp = arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapByte - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapByte) * gcBits;
xbits = *bitp;
bits = (xbits >> shift) & bitMask;
if((bits&bitBoundary) == 0) {
// Not a beginning of a block, check if we have block boundary in xbits.
while(shift > 0) {
obj -= PtrSize;
shift -= gcBits;
bits = (xbits >> shift) & bitMask;
if((bits&bitBoundary) != 0)
goto havebits;
}
// Otherwise consult span table to find the block beginning.
// Not a beginning of a block, consult span table to find the block beginning.
k = (uintptr)obj>>PageShift;
x = k;
x -= (uintptr)arena_start>>PageShift;
@ -433,7 +437,6 @@ scanblock(byte *b, uintptr n, byte *ptrmask)
goto markobj;
}
havebits:
// Now we have bits, bitp, and shift correct for
// obj pointing at the base of the object.
// Only care about not marked objects.
@ -449,22 +452,12 @@ scanblock(byte *b, uintptr n, byte *ptrmask)
// For 8-byte objects we use non-atomic store, if the other
// quadruple is already marked. Otherwise we resort to CAS
// loop for marking.
bits8 = xbits>>(shift&~7);
if((bits8&(bitMask|(bitMask<<gcBits))) != (bitBoundary|(bitBoundary<<gcBits)) ||
if((xbits&(bitMask|(bitMask<<gcBits))) != (bitBoundary|(bitBoundary<<gcBits)) ||
work.nproc == 1)
((uint8*)bitp)[shift/8] = bits8 | (bitMarked<<(shift&7));
else {
for(;;) {
if(runtime·casp((void**)bitp, (void*)xbits, (void*)(xbits|(bitMarked<<shift))))
break;
xbits = *bitp;
bits = (xbits>>shift) & bitMask;
if((bits&bitMarked) != 0)
break;
}
if((bits&bitMarked) != 0)
continue;
}
*bitp = xbits | (bitMarked<<shift);
else
runtime·atomicor8(bitp, bitMarked<<shift);
if(((xbits>>(shift+2))&BitsMask) == BitsDead)
continue; // noscan object
@ -901,9 +894,9 @@ bool
runtime·MSpan_Sweep(MSpan *s, bool preserve)
{
int32 cl, n, npages, nfree;
uintptr size, off, *bitp, shift, xbits, bits;
uintptr size, off, step;
uint32 sweepgen;
byte *p;
byte *p, *bitp, shift, xbits, bits;
MCache *c;
byte *arena_start;
MLink head, *end, *link;
@ -939,8 +932,8 @@ runtime·MSpan_Sweep(MSpan *s, bool preserve)
// Mark any free objects in this span so we don't collect them.
for(link = s->freelist; link != nil; link = link->next) {
off = (uintptr*)link - (uintptr*)arena_start;
bitp = (uintptr*)arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapWord - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapWord) * gcBits;
bitp = arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapByte - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapByte) * gcBits;
*bitp |= bitMarked<<shift;
}
@ -951,8 +944,8 @@ runtime·MSpan_Sweep(MSpan *s, bool preserve)
// A finalizer can be set for an inner byte of an object, find object beginning.
p = (byte*)(s->start << PageShift) + special->offset/size*size;
off = (uintptr*)p - (uintptr*)arena_start;
bitp = (uintptr*)arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapWord - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapWord) * gcBits;
bitp = arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapByte - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapByte) * gcBits;
bits = (*bitp>>shift) & bitMask;
if((bits&bitMarked) == 0) {
// Find the exact byte for which the special was setup
@ -977,10 +970,27 @@ runtime·MSpan_Sweep(MSpan *s, bool preserve)
// This thread owns the span now, so it can manipulate
// the block bitmap without atomic operations.
p = (byte*)(s->start << PageShift);
for(; n > 0; n--, p += size) {
// Find bits for the beginning of the span.
off = (uintptr*)p - (uintptr*)arena_start;
bitp = (uintptr*)arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapWord - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapWord) * gcBits;
bitp = arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapByte - 1;
shift = 0;
step = size/(PtrSize*wordsPerBitmapByte);
// Rewind to the previous quadruple as we move to the next
// in the beginning of the loop.
bitp += step;
if(step == 0) {
// 8-byte objects.
bitp++;
shift = gcBits;
}
for(; n > 0; n--, p += size) {
bitp -= step;
if(step == 0) {
if(shift != 0)
bitp--;
shift = gcBits - shift;
}
xbits = *bitp;
bits = (xbits>>shift) & bitMask;
@ -1759,8 +1769,8 @@ runtime·wakefing(void)
static byte*
unrollgcprog1(byte *mask, byte *prog, uintptr *ppos, bool inplace, bool sparse)
{
uintptr *b, off, shift, pos, siz, i;
byte *arena_start, *prog1, v;
uintptr pos, siz, i, off;
byte *arena_start, *prog1, v, *bitp, shift;
arena_start = runtime·mheap.arena_start;
pos = *ppos;
@ -1777,11 +1787,11 @@ unrollgcprog1(byte *mask, byte *prog, uintptr *ppos, bool inplace, bool sparse)
if(inplace) {
// Store directly into GC bitmap.
off = (uintptr*)(mask+pos) - (uintptr*)arena_start;
b = (uintptr*)arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapWord - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapWord) * gcBits;
if((shift%8)==0)
((byte*)b)[shift/8] = 0;
((byte*)b)[shift/8] |= v<<((shift%8)+2);
bitp = arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapByte - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapByte) * gcBits;
if(shift==0)
*bitp = 0;
*bitp |= v<<(shift+2);
pos += PtrSize;
} else if(sparse) {
// 4-bits per word
@ -1847,8 +1857,8 @@ unrollglobgcprog(byte *prog, uintptr size)
void
runtime·unrollgcproginplace_m(void)
{
uintptr size, size0, *b, off, shift, pos;
byte *arena_start, *prog;
uintptr size, size0, pos, off;
byte *arena_start, *prog, *bitp, shift;
Type *typ;
void *v;
@ -1866,15 +1876,15 @@ runtime·unrollgcproginplace_m(void)
// Mark first word as bitAllocated.
arena_start = runtime·mheap.arena_start;
off = (uintptr*)v - (uintptr*)arena_start;
b = (uintptr*)arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapWord - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapWord) * gcBits;
*b |= bitBoundary<<shift;
bitp = arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapByte - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapByte) * gcBits;
*bitp |= bitBoundary<<shift;
// Mark word after last as BitsDead.
if(size0 < size) {
off = (uintptr*)((byte*)v + size0) - (uintptr*)arena_start;
b = (uintptr*)arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapWord - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapWord) * gcBits;
*b &= ~(bitPtrMask<<shift) | ((uintptr)BitsDead<<(shift+2));
bitp = arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapByte - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapByte) * gcBits;
*bitp &= ~(bitPtrMask<<shift) | ((uintptr)BitsDead<<(shift+2));
}
}
@ -1916,60 +1926,67 @@ runtime·unrollgcprog_m(void)
void
runtime·markspan(void *v, uintptr size, uintptr n, bool leftover)
{
uintptr *b, *b0, off, shift, x;
byte *p;
uintptr i, off, step;
byte *b;
if((byte*)v+size*n > (byte*)runtime·mheap.arena_used || (byte*)v < runtime·mheap.arena_start)
runtime·throw("markspan: bad pointer");
p = v;
if(leftover) // mark a boundary just past end of last block too
n++;
// Find bits of the beginning of the span.
off = (uintptr*)v - (uintptr*)runtime·mheap.arena_start; // word offset
b = runtime·mheap.arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapByte - 1;
if((off%wordsPerBitmapByte) != 0)
runtime·throw("markspan: unaligned length");
b0 = nil;
x = 0;
for(; n-- > 0; p += size) {
// Okay to use non-atomic ops here, because we control
// the entire span, and each bitmap word has bits for only
// one span, so no other goroutines are changing these
// bitmap words.
off = (uintptr*)p - (uintptr*)runtime·mheap.arena_start; // word offset
b = (uintptr*)runtime·mheap.arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapWord - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapWord) * gcBits;
if(b0 != b) {
if(b0 != nil)
*b0 = x;
b0 = b;
x = 0;
// the entire span, and each bitmap byte has bits for only
// one span, so no other goroutines are changing these bitmap words.
if(size == PtrSize) {
// Possible only on 64-bits (minimal size class is 8 bytes).
// Poor man's memset(0x11).
if(0x11 != ((bitBoundary+BitsDead)<<gcBits) + (bitBoundary+BitsDead))
runtime·throw("markspan: bad bits");
if((n%(wordsPerBitmapByte*PtrSize)) != 0)
runtime·throw("markspan: unaligned length");
b = b - n/wordsPerBitmapByte + 1; // find first byte
if(((uintptr)b%PtrSize) != 0)
runtime·throw("markspan: unaligned pointer");
for(i = 0; i != n; i += wordsPerBitmapByte*PtrSize, b += PtrSize)
*(uintptr*)b = (uintptr)0x1111111111111111ULL; // bitBoundary+BitsDead
return;
}
x |= (bitBoundary<<shift) | ((uintptr)BitsDead<<(shift+2));
}
*b0 = x;
if(leftover)
n++; // mark a boundary just past end of last block too
step = size/(PtrSize*wordsPerBitmapByte);
for(i = 0; i != n; i++, b -= step)
*b = bitBoundary|(BitsDead<<2);
}
// unmark the span of memory at v of length n bytes.
void
runtime·unmarkspan(void *v, uintptr n)
{
uintptr *p, *b, off;
uintptr off;
byte *b;
if((byte*)v+n > (byte*)runtime·mheap.arena_used || (byte*)v < runtime·mheap.arena_start)
runtime·throw("markspan: bad pointer");
p = v;
off = p - (uintptr*)runtime·mheap.arena_start; // word offset
if((off % wordsPerBitmapWord) != 0)
off = (uintptr*)v - (uintptr*)runtime·mheap.arena_start; // word offset
if((off % (PtrSize*wordsPerBitmapByte)) != 0)
runtime·throw("markspan: unaligned pointer");
b = (uintptr*)runtime·mheap.arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapWord - 1;
b = runtime·mheap.arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapByte - 1;
n /= PtrSize;
if(n%wordsPerBitmapWord != 0)
if(n%(PtrSize*wordsPerBitmapByte) != 0)
runtime·throw("unmarkspan: unaligned length");
// Okay to use non-atomic ops here, because we control
// the entire span, and each bitmap word has bits for only
// one span, so no other goroutines are changing these
// bitmap words.
n /= wordsPerBitmapWord;
runtime·memclr((byte*)(b - n + 1), n*PtrSize);
n /= wordsPerBitmapByte;
runtime·memclr(b - n + 1, n);
}
void
@ -1983,7 +2000,7 @@ runtime·MHeap_MapBits(MHeap *h)
};
uintptr n;
n = (h->arena_used - h->arena_start) / wordsPerBitmapWord;
n = (h->arena_used - h->arena_start) / (PtrSize*wordsPerBitmapByte);
n = ROUND(n, bitmapChunk);
n = ROUND(n, PhysPageSize);
if(h->bitmap_mapped >= n)
@ -2011,8 +2028,8 @@ void
runtime·getgcmask(byte *p, Type *t, byte **mask, uintptr *len)
{
Stkframe frame;
uintptr i, n, off, bits, shift, *b;
byte *base;
uintptr i, n, off;
byte *base, bits, shift, *b;
*mask = nil;
*len = 0;
@ -2047,8 +2064,8 @@ runtime·getgcmask(byte *p, Type *t, byte **mask, uintptr *len)
*mask = runtime·mallocgc(*len, nil, 0);
for(i = 0; i < n; i += PtrSize) {
off = (uintptr*)(base+i) - (uintptr*)runtime·mheap.arena_start;
b = (uintptr*)runtime·mheap.arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapWord - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapWord) * gcBits;
b = runtime·mheap.arena_start - off/wordsPerBitmapByte - 1;
shift = (off % wordsPerBitmapByte) * gcBits;
bits = (*b >> (shift+2))&BitsMask;
(*mask)[i/PtrSize] = bits;
}

2
src/pkg/runtime/mgc0.h
View file

@ -8,8 +8,8 @@ enum {
ScanStackByFrames = 1,
// Four bits per word (see #defines below).
wordsPerBitmapWord = sizeof(void*)*8/4,
gcBits = 4,
wordsPerBitmapByte = 8/gcBits,
// GC type info programs.
// The programs allow to store type info required for GC in a compact form.

1
src/pkg/runtime/runtime.h
View file

@ -913,6 +913,7 @@ void runtime·atomicstore64(uint64 volatile*, uint64);
uint64 runtime·atomicload64(uint64 volatile*);
void* runtime·atomicloadp(void* volatile*);
void runtime·atomicstorep(void* volatile*, void*);
void runtime·atomicor8(byte volatile*, byte);
void runtime·setg(G*);
void runtime·newextram(void);